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91093 -
Human Anatomy
(objectives)
At the end of the course the student must be able to: describe the structures composing the human body using the correct anatomical terminology; know the organization of the body regions, the macro and microscopic structure of the organs and the relationships between them; be able to use the knowledge acquired during the course to study disciplines that illustrate the functional aspects of the human body.
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Cesarini Valeriana
( syllabus)
HEAD AND NECK
Main palpable and imaging features of the skull and cervical region of the spine.
Macroscopic/microscopic anatomy of head and neck regions with skeletal and muscular systems, neurovascular, venous networks and lymphatic drainage of:
cranial fossae, external surface of the skull, oral cavity, theet and tongue, tonsils, soft palate, pharynx, salivary glands, larynx and trachea, thyroid and parathyroid glands, contents of the carotid sheath, ear and pharyngotympanic tube, eyes, eyelids and conjunctiva, nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses, upper airways, description of the fasciae and fascial spaces of the neck and the lymphatic drainage pathways with clinical references.
Surface anatomy: territories of distribution of the cranial nerves, location and functions of the muscles of the head and neck and their innervation, landmarks with particular attention to interventional procedures and to the vascular segments most exposed to damage.
BACK
Topographic anatomy; skeletal structure: vertebrae, intervertebral foramina, posterior spaces between the vertebral arches, curvatures of the vertebral column, joints: joints between the vertebrae, ligaments (anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments, yellow, supraspinatus, nuchal, interspinous).
Back musculature with only nomenclature of the structures of the superficial, intermediate and deep planes and general information on the thoracolumbar fascia.
Spinal cord: Blood vessels, meninges, details on the organization of the meningeal and nerve structures in the spinal canal, spinal nerves.
UPPER LIMB
Anatomy of the region.
Shoulder (bones, joints, muscles, main vessels and nerves). The armpit and its contents.
Arm (bones, muscles, vessels and nerve, elbow).
Forearm (bones, joints, muscles, vessels and nerve).
Hand (bones, joints, wrist, muscles, vessels and nerve).
LOWER LIMB
Anatomy of the region.
The hip (bony pelvis, proximal femur, hip joint, vessels and nerves). Gluteal region (with extremely superficial notes on: vessels and nerves).
Thigh (bones, muscles, vessels and nerves, knee joint, popliteal fossa).
Leg (bones, joints, compartments - anterior, posterior and lateral).
Foot (bones, joints, tarsal tunnel, retinacles and arrangement of the main structures in the ankle region, arches and plantar aponeuroses, vessels and nerves).
( reference books)
Drake: Anatomia del Grey. I fondamenti Ed. Edra
Anastasi: Trattato di Anatomia Umana. Ed. Edi Ermes
Saladin: Anatomia Umana. Ed. Piccin
Netter: Atlante di Anatomia Umana. Ed Edra
Netter: Atlante di Anatomia Umana. Ed Edra
Anatomia della testa e del collo di Netter per odontoiatri Neil S. Norton Edis
Anatomia della testa e del collo per odontoiatri, di Eric W. Baker, a cura di Antonio Franchitto
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Meringolo Maria
( syllabus)
HEAD AND NECK
Main palpable and imaging features of the skull and cervical region of the spine.
Macroscopic/microscopic anatomy of head and neck regions with skeletal and muscular systems, neurovascular, venous networks and lymphatic drainage of:
cranial fossae, external surface of the skull, oral cavity, theet and tongue, tonsils, soft palate, pharynx, salivary glands, larynx and trachea, thyroid and parathyroid glands, contents of the carotid sheath, ear and pharyngotympanic tube, eyes, eyelids and conjunctiva, nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses, upper airways, description of the fasciae and fascial spaces of the neck and the lymphatic drainage pathways with clinical references.
Surface anatomy: territories of distribution of the cranial nerves, location and functions of the muscles of the head and neck and their innervation, landmarks with particular attention to interventional procedures and to the vascular segments most exposed to damage.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Spinal cord, brain stem, diencephalon, cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, meninges, ventricles, spinal nerves and nerve plexuses, cranial nerves.
UPPER LIMB
Anatomy of the region.
Shoulder (bones, joints, muscles, main vessels and nerves). The armpit and its contents.
Arm (bones, muscles, vessels and nerve, elbow).
Forearm (bones, joints, muscles, vessels and nerve).
Hand (bones, joints, wrist, muscles, vessels and nerve).
ABDOMEN
Surface anatomy of the anterior and posterior abdominal walls and of the inguinal region.
Anatomy and anatomo-clinical relationships of the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine including the appendix, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys, ureters and adrenal glands. Distribution of the vascular tree to the different segments of the alimentary canal and abdominal organs. Organization of the peritoneum, meaning and distribution of ligaments.
Portal circulation and accessory portal circles.
Lymphatic drainage and innervation of the abdominal organs.
Anatomy of the subhepatic and subphrenic spaces.
PELVIC REGION
Position, course, anatomo-clinical relationships of ureters, bladder, urethra, rectum and anal canal structure of the pelvic floor, anatomy of continence, defecation and urination in the two sexes.
Anatomy of the genital system in the male (scrotum, testis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis) and in the female sex (ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, labia majora, clitoris), anatomy of the birth canal and diameters.
Relations of the peritoneum and ligament systems with the pelvic viscera.
Arterial distribution, venous drainage, lymphatic drainage and innervation of the pelvic organs.
LOWER LIMB
Anatomy of the region.
The hip (bony pelvis, proximal femur, hip joint, vessels and nerves). Gluteal region (with extremely superficial notes on: vessels and nerves).
Thigh (bones, muscles, vessels and nerves, knee joint, popliteal fossa).
Leg (bones, joints, compartments - anterior, posterior and lateral).
Foot (bones, joints, tarsal tunnel, retinacles and arrangement of the main structures in the ankle region, arches and plantar aponeuroses, vessels and nerves).
( reference books)
Drake: Anatomia del Grey. I fondamenti Ed. Edra
Anastasi: Trattato di Anatomia Umana. Ed. Edi Ermes
Saladin: Anatomia Umana. Ed. Piccin
Netter: Atlante di Anatomia Umana. Ed Edra
Netter: Atlante di Anatomia Umana. Ed Edra
Anatomia della testa e del collo di Netter per odontoiatri Neil S. Norton Edis
Anatomia della testa e del collo per odontoiatri, di Eric W. Baker, a cura di Antonio Franchitto
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Sciamanna Giuseppe
( syllabus)
HEAD AND NECK
Main palpable and imaging features of the skull and cervical region of the spine.
Macroscopic/microscopic anatomy of head and neck regions with skeletal and muscular systems, neurovascular, venous networks and lymphatic drainage of:
cranial fossae, external surface of the skull, oral cavity, theet and tongue, tonsils, soft palate, pharynx, salivary glands, larynx and trachea, thyroid and parathyroid glands, contents of the carotid sheath, ear and pharyngotympanic tube, eyes, eyelids and conjunctiva, nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses, upper airways, description of the fasciae and fascial spaces of the neck and the lymphatic drainage pathways with clinical references.
Surface anatomy: territories of distribution of the cranial nerves, location and functions of the muscles of the head and neck and their innervation, landmarks with particular attention to interventional procedures and to the vascular segments most exposed to damage.
UPPER LIMB
Anatomy of the region.
Shoulder (bones, joints, muscles, main vessels and nerves). The armpit and its contents.
Arm (bones, muscles, vessels and nerve, elbow).
Forearm (bones, joints, muscles, vessels and nerve).
Hand (bones, joints, wrist, muscles, vessels and nerve).
THORAX
Main surface and radiological characteristics of the chest wall and anatomy of the intercostal spaces, diaphragm and functional anatomy of ventilation.
Macroscopic/microscopic anatomy of lower airways and pleural cavities and lungs, including neurovascular supply and lymphatic drainage.
Major divisions of the mediastinum and their contents, anatomy of the heart and great vessels of the thorax, including their surface and projections on the chest wall.
Arrangement of the coronary arteries, location and function of the heart valves.
Course of the large structures that pass between the neck and thorax and of those that run through the diaphragm between thorax and abdomen, distribution of the phrenic and intercostal nerves.
LOWER LIMB
Anatomy of the region.
The hip (bony pelvis, proximal femur, hip joint, vessels and nerves). Gluteal region (with extremely superficial notes on: vessels and nerves).
Thigh (bones, muscles, vessels and nerves, knee joint, popliteal fossa).
Leg (bones, joints, compartments - anterior, posterior and lateral).
Foot (bones, joints, tarsal tunnel, retinacles and arrangement of the main structures in the ankle region, arches and plantar aponeuroses, vessels and nerves).
( reference books)
Drake: Anatomia del Grey. I fondamenti Ed. Edra
Anastasi: Trattato di Anatomia Umana. Ed. Edi Ermes
Saladin: Anatomia Umana. Ed. Piccin
Netter: Atlante di Anatomia Umana. Ed Edra
Netter: Atlante di Anatomia Umana. Ed Edra
Anatomia della testa e del collo di Netter per odontoiatri Neil S. Norton Edis
Anatomia della testa e del collo per odontoiatri, di Eric W. Baker, a cura di Antonio Franchitto
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10
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BIO/16
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100
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Basic compulsory activities
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ITA |
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91167 -
Histology
(objectives)
Aim of the integrated course of Histology is to provide students with knowledge on the physiological organization and development of cells and tissues. During the Histology lectures fundamentals of cytology are discussed for the full understanding of the organization of tissues and their development. The organization of cells and extracellular matrix and their association in the organization of the different tissues is illustrated and discussed, together with the standard histological procedures, including microscopy approaches (optics, fluorescence and electronics), as a tool for the study of structure and development of the human organism.
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Lacconi Valentina
( syllabus)
Citology
Methods to study cells and tissues
Notes on the use of optical (bright field, phase contrast, interference, fluorescence, confocal) and electronic (TEM and SEM) microscopes; unit of measurement and resolving power (Abbe's formula). Procedures for preparing of specimens for optical (paraffin and freezing) and electron microscopy. Cell cultures. Autoradiography and electrophoresis. Main histomorphological and histochemical staining procedure. Principles of immunolocalization of cellular molecules and organelles. The fractional centrifugation.
The plasma membrane
Molecular structure and organisation of the plasma membrane: the fluid mosaic model; membrane lipids and their properties; extrinsic and intrinsic proteins: antigenic properties, function as adhesive proteins, function as receptors and their role in signal transduction. Transport of small molecules and water across the plasma membrane: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport and osmosis. Principal morphological ((freeze-fracture) and molecular (immunolocalization and electrophoresis of proteins) study methods. Composition and functions of the glycocalyx.
The cytoplasmic organelles
Composition of the cytosol and of the various cytoplasmic inclusions (glycogen granules and lipid droplets). The smooth endoplasmic reticulum: structure, role in lipid metabolism, detoxification processes, in glycogenolysis and in the accumulation of calcium. Ultrastructural organisation and function of the granular endoplasmic reticulum. Main steps in the translation process and differences between the synthesis of proteins destined for the cytosol and that of secretory, membrane or lysosomal proteins. Post-translational modifications of proteins: glycosylation, hydroxylation and role of molecular chaperones. COP protein-coated transport vesicles. Specificity of vesicular transport and fusion processes: v-SNARE and t-SNARE proteins. Golgi complex: ultrastructure, biosynthetic processes and sorting of the molecules synthesised in the endoplasmic reticulum. Constitutive and regulated cell secretion: regulatory mechanisms. Endocytosis. Internalisation of soluble molecules by caveole: pinocytosis, transcytosis, interactions of caveolins with signal molecules. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis: Clathrin-coated vesicles. Endosomes and the different sorting pathways of specific ligands. Lysosomes: biogenesis, morphology, hydrolytic enzymes. Phagocytosis and autophagy. The peroxisomes: structure and functions
Mechanisms for the degradation of cytoplasmic proteins: the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the aggresome.
Mitochondria: morphology, distribution and replication. Mitochondrial genome. Localization and function of mitochondrial enzymatic complexes: main aspects of the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Role of mitochondria in calcium homeostasis, in apoptosis and in the synthesis of steroid hormones.
The cytoskeleton. Microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments: molecular organization, distribution in the cell and in the different cell types. The function of the cytoskeleton in specific processes such as cell motility, phagocytosis, endocytosis, exocytosis, vesicle movement. Proteins associated with microtubules (kinesins and dyneins) and microfilaments (proteins that bind actin). The centrosome. The membrane cytoskeleton. Vibrating lashes: structure and function. The primary edge.
The nucleus
Structure of the interphase nucleus. Exchanges between nucleus and cytoplasm. Composition of interphase chromatin and nuclear matrix. Euchromatin and heterochromatin. The nucleosomes. Histones, non-histone regulatory proteins. The nucleolus: molecular structure and organization; the synthesis of rRNA and the assembly of ribosomal subunits. The nuclear envelope: differences between the cytoplasmic and nuclear surfaces, structure and function of nuclear pores, importins and exports, associated regulatory molecules, the nuclear lamina.
Notes on cell division and the phases of the cell cycle. Notes on the formation of chromosomes (their structure) and the mitotic apparatus. Notes on the stages of mitosis.
Cellular interactions
General principles of paracrine, autocrine, endocrine and juxtacrine cellular interactions. Cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesive systems. The intercellular junction structures: structural and molecular organisation of the occluding junctions, of the anchoring junctions (adherent zonules and desmosomes) and of the communicating junctions (gap junctions). The integrins. Podosomes and focal adhesions. Hemidesmosomes.
Practical histology
Through the use of the optic microscope students will have to identify histological specimens, describe their organisation, and correlate structure with function, at cellular and tissue level. Histological specimens to be studied are:
- Simple boundary epithelium: squamous (mesothelium, endothelium), cuboidal (glandular ducts) and columnar (intestine) epithelia.
- Stratified boundary epithelium: squamous (esophagus) and keratinized squamous (epidermis) epithelia
- Pseudostratified epithelium (trachea)
- Transitional epithelium (ureter)
- Glandular epithelium: intraepithelial, unicellular glands (the goblet cell); examples of exocrine (salivary glands) and endocrine (thyroid, parathyroids) glands; exo/endocrine gland: the pancreas.
- Connective tissue: loose connective tissue (trachea, intestine and esophagus); dense irregular connective tissue (the skin); dense regular connective tissue (tendons).
- Supportive connective tissues: tracheal cartilage and compact bone (ground and H&E)
- Blood smear
- Lympho-epithelial tissue of the thymus
- Skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissues
- Nerve tissue: section of the spinal cord
( reference books)
- Pawlina W.: Histology a text and atlas, eighth edition. Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
- Schoenwolf, Bleyl, Bauer and Francis-West: Larsen's Human Embryology, 5th edition.
- Moore, Persaud, Torchia. The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology. Elsevier.
- Fehrenbach & Popowics, Illustrated Dental Embryology, Histology, and Anatomy, Edition 5
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Klinger Francesca
( syllabus)
Embryology
Spermatogenesis, oogenesis and fertilisation
The meiotic division. Timing and modalities of meiosis in spermatogenesis and ovogenesis. Aneuploidy. Testis structure: albuginea tunic, lobules, seminiferous tubules, rectus tubules and rete testis. Localization and function of Sertoli cells, Leydig cells and myodic cells. Male genital tract and related glands. The seminiferous epithelium. Spermatogenesis: the mitotic phase, the meiotic phase and spermiogenesis. Structure of spermatozoa. Cycle and wave of the seminiferous epithelium. The Immune Privilege of the Testis. Hormonal control of spermatogenesis. Testicular tumors.
Structure of the ovary: cortical area and medullary area. Folliculogenesis: the primordial, primary, secondary, antral, dominant, ovulatory follicle. The zona pellucida. The cells of the theca. Ovulation. The corpus luteum. Ovarian cycle and uterine cycle. Hormonal control of the ovarian cycle and follicular selection. Mutual influence between somatic cells and the oocyte: growth and maturation of the oocyte and proliferation and maturation of follicular cells. The sperm. Capacitation and acrosomal reaction of spermatozoa. Fertilisation. Activation of the oocyte: calcium, cortical reaction, completion of meiosis (MPF and cytostatic factor). Parthenogenesis and imprinting. Birth control methods. Assisted reproduction techniques. Generalities of prenatal development: embryonic and fetal period and sensitivity to teratogenic agents. Diagnosis and prenatal therapy.
First week of development
The segmentation. Cloning. Embryonic stem cells (ES), adult stem cells and induced pluripotent cells (iPSCs). Preimplantation genetic diagnosis. IVF and ICSI. Activation of the embryo genome. Inactivation of the X chromosome. Imprinting and hydatiform mole.
Second week of development
Embryonic implantation. Differentiation of the trophoblast: cytotrophoblast, syncytium trophoblast and lacunar system. HCG and pregnancy test. Amniotic cavity and yolk sac. Formation of the extraembryonic mesoderm. Chorionic or extra-embryonic coelomic cavity. Decidual reaction. Ectopic implant.
Third week of development
Gastrulation and formation of the three embryonic sheets. Primary epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Buccopharyngeal and cloacal membrane. Allantoid diverticulum. Development of the notochord, induction of the neural plaque (BMP inhibitors: cord, noggin and follistatin) and neurulation. Neural tube and neural crest. The paraxial, intermediate and lateral mesoderm. The intra-embryonic coelom. Formation of extra- and intra-embryonic angioblastic islands. Cardiogenic area and transverse septum. Regression of the primitive line and the sacro-coccygeal teratoma. Determination of the body axes: AVE, Hensen's node, notochord, primitive line and postero-anterior, dorso-ventral and left-right decreasing gradient of factors of the TGFbeta family (nodal and BMP). Differentiation of neural crests and importance of BMP, WNT and FGF.
Fourth week of development
Lateral and cephalo-caudal folding and cylindrical definition of the body. Development of the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Homeotic genes and the body pattern along the anterior-posterior axis. Molecular mechanisms of somitogenesis (clock and wavefront model).
Organogenesis
The neuroectoderm: development of the neural tube. Eminence or caudal gem. Three to five brain vesicles. Derivatives of the walls and cavities of the five vesicles. Development of the pituitary gland. The spinal cord and the formation of the equine tail. Derivatives of the neuroepithelium: neurons and glia of the central nervous system. Radial glial cells. Differentiation of microglia cells. The peripheral nervous system and other derivatives of neural crest cells. Importance of BMP and SHH in the differential development of neurons in the spinal cord. NGF and neurotrophic factors. Malformations: rachisisis, spina bifida occulta, meningocele, meningomyelocele.
Development of the face and neck. Development and derivatives of the frontal process, arches, clefs and pharyngeal pouches. Stomodeum and buccopharyngeal membrane. Embryonic derivation of the cartilages, bones, muscles and nerves of the face. Development of the primitive and definitive palate, tongue and thyroid. Tooth development: four stages. Malformations: cervical sinus, cleft lip, cleft palate, cleft lip and palate.
Malformations: cervical sinus, cleft lip, cleft palate, cleft lip and palate
( reference books)
- Pawlina W.: Histology a text and atlas, eighth edition. Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
- Schoenwolf, Bleyl, Bauer and Francis-West: Larsen's Human Embryology, 5th edition.
- Moore, Persaud, Torchia. The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology. Elsevier.
- Fehrenbach & Popowics, Illustrated Dental Embryology, Histology, and Anatomy, Edition 5
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Lamsira Harpreet Kaur
( syllabus)
Citology
Methods to study cells and tissues
Notes on the use of optical (bright field, phase contrast, interference, fluorescence, confocal) and electronic (TEM and SEM) microscopes; unit of measurement and resolving power (Abbe's formula). Procedures for preparing of specimens for optical (paraffin and freezing) and electron microscopy. Cell cultures. Autoradiography and electrophoresis. Main histomorphological and histochemical staining procedure. Principles of immunolocalization of cellular molecules and organelles. The fractional centrifugation.
The plasma membrane
Molecular structure and organisation of the plasma membrane: the fluid mosaic model; membrane lipids and their properties; extrinsic and intrinsic proteins: antigenic properties, function as adhesive proteins, function as receptors and their role in signal transduction. Transport of small molecules and water across the plasma membrane: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport and osmosis. Principal morphological ((freeze-fracture) and molecular (immunolocalization and electrophoresis of proteins) study methods. Composition and functions of the glycocalyx.
The cytoplasmic organelles
Composition of the cytosol and of the various cytoplasmic inclusions (glycogen granules and lipid droplets). The smooth endoplasmic reticulum: structure, role in lipid metabolism, detoxification processes, in glycogenolysis and in the accumulation of calcium. Ultrastructural organisation and function of the granular endoplasmic reticulum. Main steps in the translation process and differences between the synthesis of proteins destined for the cytosol and that of secretory, membrane or lysosomal proteins. Post-translational modifications of proteins: glycosylation, hydroxylation and role of molecular chaperones. COP protein-coated transport vesicles. Specificity of vesicular transport and fusion processes: v-SNARE and t-SNARE proteins. Golgi complex: ultrastructure, biosynthetic processes and sorting of the molecules synthesised in the endoplasmic reticulum. Constitutive and regulated cell secretion: regulatory mechanisms. Endocytosis. Internalisation of soluble molecules by caveole: pinocytosis, transcytosis, interactions of caveolins with signal molecules. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis: Clathrin-coated vesicles. Endosomes and the different sorting pathways of specific ligands. Lysosomes: biogenesis, morphology, hydrolytic enzymes. Phagocytosis and autophagy. The peroxisomes: structure and functions
Mechanisms for the degradation of cytoplasmic proteins: the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the aggresome.
Mitochondria: morphology, distribution and replication. Mitochondrial genome. Localization and function of mitochondrial enzymatic complexes: main aspects of the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Role of mitochondria in calcium homeostasis, in apoptosis and in the synthesis of steroid hormones.
The cytoskeleton. Microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments: molecular organization, distribution in the cell and in the different cell types. The function of the cytoskeleton in specific processes such as cell motility, phagocytosis, endocytosis, exocytosis, vesicle movement. Proteins associated with microtubules (kinesins and dyneins) and microfilaments (proteins that bind actin). The centrosome. The membrane cytoskeleton. Vibrating lashes: structure and function. The primary edge.
The nucleus
Structure of the interphase nucleus. Exchanges between nucleus and cytoplasm. Composition of interphase chromatin and nuclear matrix. Euchromatin and heterochromatin. The nucleosomes. Histones, non-histone regulatory proteins. The nucleolus: molecular structure and organization; the synthesis of rRNA and the assembly of ribosomal subunits. The nuclear envelope: differences between the cytoplasmic and nuclear surfaces, structure and function of nuclear pores, importins and exports, associated regulatory molecules, the nuclear lamina.
Notes on cell division and the phases of the cell cycle. Notes on the formation of chromosomes (their structure) and the mitotic apparatus. Notes on the stages of mitosis.
Cellular interactions
General principles of paracrine, autocrine, endocrine and juxtacrine cellular interactions. Cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesive systems. The intercellular junction structures: structural and molecular organisation of the occluding junctions, of the anchoring junctions (adherent zonules and desmosomes) and of the communicating junctions (gap junctions). The integrins. Podosomes and focal adhesions. Hemidesmosomes.
Practical histology
Through the use of the optic microscope students will have to identify histological specimens, describe their organisation, and correlate structure with function, at cellular and tissue level. Histological specimens to be studied are:
- Simple boundary epithelium: squamous (mesothelium, endothelium), cuboidal (glandular ducts) and columnar (intestine) epithelia.
- Stratified boundary epithelium: squamous (esophagus) and keratinized squamous (epidermis) epithelia
- Pseudostratified epithelium (trachea)
- Transitional epithelium (ureter)
- Glandular epithelium: intraepithelial, unicellular glands (the goblet cell); examples of exocrine (salivary glands) and endocrine (thyroid, parathyroids) glands; exo/endocrine gland: the pancreas.
- Connective tissue: loose connective tissue (trachea, intestine and esophagus); dense irregular connective tissue (the skin); dense regular connective tissue (tendons).
- Supportive connective tissues: tracheal cartilage and compact bone (ground and H&E)
- Blood smear
- Lympho-epithelial tissue of the thymus
- Skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissues
- Nerve tissue: section of the spinal cord
( reference books)
- Pawlina W.: Histology a text and atlas, eighth edition. Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
- Schoenwolf, Bleyl, Bauer and Francis-West: Larsen's Human Embryology, 5th edition.
- Moore, Persaud, Torchia. The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology. Elsevier.
- Fehrenbach & Popowics, Illustrated Dental Embryology, Histology, and Anatomy, Edition 5
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La Sala Gina
( syllabus)
Histology
Methods for the morphological study of tissues
Optical microscopes (transmitted light, phase contrast, interferential, fluorescence and confocal optical microscopes) and electron microscopes (tem and sem); unit of measurement and resolution power (abbe formula). Procedures for histological preparation for the optical (paraffin preparation and freezing) and electronic microscope. The cell cultures. Autoradiography and electrophoresis. Main histomorphological and histochemical staining. Principles of immunolocalization of molecules and cellular organelles. Fractional centrifugation.
The stem cells
Notes on cellular differentiation. Stem cells (general characteristics of embryonic stem cells, adult tissues, and induced pluripotent stem cells). Stem niches. Cloning. Tissue regeneration.
The epithelial tissues
Generalities (organization, vascularization and innervation) and embryonic derivation. Characteristics of epithelial cells [shape, polarity, specializations of the apical surface (common cilia and primary cilia (notes on ciliopathies), microvilli, stereocilia], specializations of the lateral surface [adhesive molecules and junction complexes (ultrastructural and molecular organization of the occluding junction, adherent, desmosome), the gap junctions], specializations of the basal surface (structural and molecular organization, function of the basal lamina), the cytoskeleton, epithelial stem cells (general characteristics of stem cells of adult tissues).
Classification of epithelial tissues (lining and glandular; notes on sensory and special epithelia).
Surface epithelia. General characteristics, classification, distribution and hints of functions. Mucous membranes (intestinal epithelium, airway epithelium, bladder epithelium), serosa, skin and endothelium [notes on the structure of capillaries (continuous, fenestrated and sinusoid capillaries, passage of molecules and cells through the endothelium) and of blood vessels].
Epidermis (keratinocytes and cornification, melanocytes and melanogenesis, Langherans cells and Merkel cells).
Clinical links: celiac disease, primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) or immotile cilia syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), pemphigus, Harlequin-type ichthyosis, melanoma.
Glandular epithelia. Embryonic derivation and histological organisation of the exocrine and endocrine glands (parenchyma and stroma). Exocrine glands (position, organisation, types of adenomeres and excretory ducts), classification and secretions (serous, mucous, mixed). Myoepithelial cells. Examples of exocrine glands: skin glands (sebaceous, sweat and mammary glands), major salivary glands, pancreas, digestive glands, goblet cells. Endocrine glands. General characteristics (concept of cellular signalling, autocrine, paracrine, endocrine, exosomes) and histological organisation (cordonal, follicular and interstitial). Hormones (polypeptides, amino acids and steroids). Examples of histological organisation and functions of endocrine glands: pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas.
The connective tissues
General characteristics, embryonic origin, classification, distribution and functions.
The connective tissues proper (classification, distribution and functions): loose (areolar) and dense (regular and irregular). Mesenchymal stem cells. Resident cells (fibroblasts, reticular cells, macrophages [phagocytosis (opsonins, Toll-type receptors, complement, such as APC cells, the macrophage system), mast cells, adipocytes]. Integrins and interactions with molecules of the intercellular substance. Intercellular substance (amorphous matrix and protein fibers). Amorphous matrix (GAGs, proteoglycans and glycoproteins) and interstitial fluid. Protein fibers. Collagens (fibrillar, laminar/reticular and FACIT and their molecular organization in particular of collagen I, synthesis and fibrillogenesis). Elastin and elastic fibers (molecular characteristics of elastin, fibrillins and their synthesis). Notes on some pathologies due to proteoglycans, collagenopathies and elastinopathies. Connective tissues proper with special properties [adipose (white and brown), reticular, elastic, pigmented, mucous].
The supporting connective tissues.
Cartilage tissues. Hyaline cartilage (embryonic origin, histological organization, distribution and growth: staining,, perichondrium, chondroblasts / chondrocytes, intercellular substance and aggrecans, collagen fibers). Special types of hyaline cartilage (metaphyseal / seriata / conjugation and articular cartilage). Elastic cartilage (embryonic origin, histological organization, distribution and growth: staining, perichondrium, chondroblasts / chondrocytes, intercellular substance). Fibrous cartilage (embryonic origin, histological organization, distribution and growth: staining, perichondrium, chondroblasts / chondrocytes, intercellular substance).
Bone tissues.
1. General characteristics of their histological composition and organization (types of bones, vascularity, innervation). Cells (osteoprogenitories, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts). Intercellular substance (mineralized matrix, collagen fibers, glycoproteins). Bone tissue lamellar (compact or spongy) and not lamellar. Preparation of a histological preparation of bone tissue (demineralization or section due to wear). Periosteum and endosteum. Osteoblasts (synthesis of molecules of the intercellular substance, their role in the formation of osteoclasts-RANK / RANKL, in maintaining the "niche" of hematopoietic stem cells and in mineralization). Osteocytes. Osteoclasts: origin, cytological (podosome) and functional (hydrogen ion pump, lysosome) characteristics. Role of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in calcium metabolism (parathyroid hormone, calcitonin). Notes on osteoporosis (estrogens, RANKL and OPG).
2. Ossification. Direct ossification. Indirect ossification. Example of ossification of the bones of the face and skull (chondrocranium and neurocranium). Example of indirect ossification of a long bone of the axial skeleton (primary ossification center and secondary ossification centers). Growth in length (metaphyseal cartilage) and width and ossification of a bone. Formation of an osteone. Mechanisms of mineralization (role of osteoblasts, mineralization vesicles, collagen fibers and proteoglycans).
Clinical correlations: Osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, dwarfism, osteogenesis imperfecta, osteopetrosis, Osteoporosis
Blood and lymph
Blood (composition and functions). Plasma (serum) and corpuscular elements (hematocrit, buffy coat, blood smear). Red blood cells [structural (size, shape and cytoskeleton) and functional characteristics (numbers, hemoglobin, transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide, hemolysis processes, notes on blood groups]. Notes on haemolytic pathologies (cytoskeletal anomalies, favism and sickle cell anemia). Platelets [structural characteristics (size, chromomer, hyalomer, shape and cytoskeleton, granules) and functional characteristics (numbers, plug and thrombus)]. Activation of platelets (adhesion to collagen, exocytosis granules, exposure of phospholipids and thrombin and fibrinogen receptors, aggregation). Notes on the intrinsic and extrinsic blood coagulation. White blood cells (types and numbers, the leukocyte formula, diapedesis). Neutrophils (how to recognize them in a blood smear, MO and TEM characteristics; "kamikaze" and "effect functions" spiderman ", the" respiratory burst "). Eosinophils (how to recognize them in a blood smear, characteristics at MO and TEM; functions, the basic protein ica major). Basophils (how to recognize them in a blood smear, MO and TEM characteristics; functions). Monocytes (how to recognize them in a blood smear, characteristics at OM and TEM). Lymphocytes (how to recognize them in a blood smear, characteristics at OM and TEM; functions).
Lymph (composition and function).
Lympho-hematopoietic tissues. Lymphoid tissues (notes on the structure and functions of the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen and bone marrow).
Hemopoiesis [the hematopoietic stem cell, hematopoietic cytokines, progenitors and precursors of differentiative cell lines, erythropoiesis, granulocytopoiesis, monocytopoiesis, thrombopoiesis (mechanisms of platelet release), lymphopoiesis].
The immune system. Innate and acquired immunity. Notes on the functions of B, T and NK lymphocytes (concept of antigen, antibodies, complement, clonal selection, gene rearrangement, immune memory, APC cells, the HLA system, the different classes of T lymphocytes).
Tooth tissues
Mineralized tissues: enamel, dentin, cement. Soft tissues: paradontium and pulp.
Muscle tissues
General characteristics, embryonic origin, classification, distribution.
Skeletal muscle tissue. General organization of a muscle. Muscle fibers cytological (shape and size, colorability, bands and striae) and ultrastructural characteristics. Myofibrils and contractile myofilaments, the sarcomere. The actin filaments (molecular organization); myosin filaments (molecular organization); filaments and accessory proteins of the sarcomere (titin, nebulin, oscurin, protein C, myomesin); the dystrophin and the costamer. The triads and the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Neuromuscular synapse, motor plate, functioning of a cholinergic synapse. The molecular mechanism of muscle contraction (action potential, T tubules, DHPR and ryanodine receptors, calcium ions and troponins / tropomyosin, the myosin heads interaction cycle, ATP, binding sites on actin filaments). Satellite cells. Structural, metabolic and functional heterogeneity of muscle fibers (type I, type IIa, IIb and IIx fibers). Outline of muscle fiber growth factors IGF-1 and myostatin, testosterone and anabolic steroids.
Smooth muscle tissue. General organization of the tissue (laminae, small muscles, myoepithelial cells). Cytological (shape and size) and ultrastructural characteristics of the smooth muscle cell (caveole, gap junctions, dense bodies, contractile filaments). Organization of contractile filaments (caldesmone, calponina, dense bodies, intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton). Characteristics and stimuli (nervous, hormonal, mechanical, NO) of the contraction. Unitary and multi-unit musculature. Synapses "en passant". Molecular mechanism of contraction (calmodulin, MLCK, myosin light chain phosphorylation, caldesmone / calponin).
Heart muscle tissue. General tissue organization, cardiomyocyte network and intercalary discs. Cytological (shape and size) and ultrastructural characteristics of the cardiomyocyte (intercalary discs, contractile filaments, sarcomere, dyads, mitochondria). Characteristics of cardiomyocyte contraction (sodium channels and spontaneous onset of action potential, DHPR and ryanodine channels, calcium ion and sarcomere). Special cardiomyocytes of the sinoatrial node and Purkinje cells.
Nervous tissue
General characteristics, embryonic origin, classification, distribution. CNS and SNP. The autonomic nervous system.
General organization of the tissue (neuronal networks, synapses, glia, gray matter and white matter). Connective lining (the meninges) and vascularization (the blood-brain barrier). Special histological methods for the study of nervous tissue from "black" Golgi to "Clarity" staining.
Cytological (shape and size, plates of Nissl, cytoskeleton, Golgi) and ultrastructural characteristics (neurotubules and neurofilaments, actin filaments, REG) of the neuron. Morphological and functional classification of neurons. Dendrites. The axon and its coatings (the myelin sheath and the concept of nerve fiber). Structure, ultrastructure and molecular organization of the myelin sheath. The axoplasmic flow. Regenerative capacity of the axon. General principles of the functioning of a neuron (the resting potential, the action potential and the propagation of the nerve impulse). The electrical and chemical synapses. Interneuronal chemical synapses (synaptogenesis, types and structure, pre- and postsynaptic density, neurotransmitters, neuropeptides). Histological structure of the nerves and ganglia.
The glia (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependyma, microglia, Schwann cells, satellite cells). Notes on neuronal stem cells.
( reference books)
- Pawlina W.: Histology a text and atlas, eighth edition. Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
- Schoenwolf, Bleyl, Bauer and Francis-West: Larsen's Human Embryology, 5th edition.
- Moore, Persaud, Torchia. The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology. Elsevier.
- Fehrenbach & Popowics, Illustrated Dental Embryology, Histology, and Anatomy, Edition 5
-
Massimiani Micol
( syllabus)
CITOLOGY
METHODS TO STUDY CELLS AND TISSUES
Notes on the use of optical (bright field, phase contrast, interference, fluorescence, confocal) and electronic (TEM and SEM) microscopes; unit of measurement and resolving power (Abbe's formula). Procedures for preparing of specimens for optical (paraffin and freezing) and electron microscopy. Cell cultures. Autoradiography and electrophoresis. Main histomorphological and histochemical staining procedure. Principles of immunolocalization of cellular molecules and organelles. The fractional centrifugation.
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Molecular structure and organisation of the plasma membrane: the fluid mosaic model; membrane lipids and their properties; extrinsic and intrinsic proteins: antigenic properties, function as adhesive proteins, function as receptors and their role in signal transduction. Transport of small molecules and water across the plasma membrane: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport and osmosis. Principal morphological ((freeze-fracture) and molecular (immunolocalization and electrophoresis of proteins) study methods. Composition and functions of the glycocalyx.
THE CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
Composition of the cytosol and of the various cytoplasmic inclusions (glycogen granules and lipid droplets). The smooth endoplasmic reticulum: structure, role in lipid metabolism, detoxification processes, in glycogenolysis and in the accumulation of calcium. Ultrastructural organisation and function of the granular endoplasmic reticulum. Main steps in the translation process and differences between the synthesis of proteins destined for the cytosol and that of secretory, membrane or lysosomal proteins. Post-translational modifications of proteins: glycosylation, hydroxylation and role of molecular chaperones. COP protein-coated transport vesicles. Specificity of vesicular transport and fusion processes: v-SNARE and t-SNARE proteins. Golgi complex: ultrastructure, biosynthetic processes and sorting of the molecules synthesised in the endoplasmic reticulum. Constitutive and regulated cell secretion: regulatory mechanisms. Endocytosis. Internalisation of soluble molecules by caveole: pinocytosis, transcytosis, interactions of caveolins with signal molecules. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis: Clathrin-coated vesicles. Endosomes and the different sorting pathways of specific ligands. Lysosomes: biogenesis, morphology, hydrolytic enzymes. Phagocytosis and autophagy. The peroxisomes: structure and functions
Mechanisms for the degradation of cytoplasmic proteins: the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the aggresome.
Mitochondria: morphology, distribution and replication. Mitochondrial genome. Localization and function of mitochondrial enzymatic complexes: main aspects of the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Role of mitochondria in calcium homeostasis, in apoptosis and in the synthesis of steroid hormones.
The cytoskeleton. Microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments: molecular organization, distribution in the cell and in the different cell types. The function of the cytoskeleton in specific processes such as cell motility, phagocytosis, endocytosis, exocytosis, vesicle movement. Proteins associated with microtubules (kinesins and dyneins) and microfilaments (proteins that bind actin). The centrosome. The membrane cytoskeleton. Vibrating lashes: structure and function. The primary edge.
THE NUCLEUS
Structure of the interphase nucleus. Exchanges between nucleus and cytoplasm. Composition of interphase chromatin and nuclear matrix. Euchromatin and heterochromatin. The nucleosomes. Histones, non-histone regulatory proteins. The nucleolus: molecular structure and organization; the synthesis of rRNA and the assembly of ribosomal subunits. The nuclear envelope: differences between the cytoplasmic and nuclear surfaces, structure and function of nuclear pores, importins and exports, associated regulatory molecules, the nuclear lamina.
Notes on cell division and the phases of the cell cycle. Notes on the formation of chromosomes (their structure) and the mitotic apparatus. Notes on the stages of mitosis.
CELLULAR INTERACTIONS
General principles of paracrine, autocrine, endocrine and juxtacrine cellular interactions. Cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesive systems. The intercellular junction structures: structural and molecular organisation of the occluding junctions, of the anchoring junctions (adherent zonules and desmosomes) and of the communicating junctions (gap junctions). The integrins. Podosomes and focal adhesions. Hemidesmosomes.
HISTOLOGY
METHODS FOR THE MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF TISSUES
Optical microscopes (transmitted light, phase contrast, interferential, fluorescence and confocal optical microscopes) and electron microscopes (TEM and SEM); unit of measurement and resolution power (Abbe formula). Procedures for histological preparation for the optical (paraffin preparation and freezing) and electronic microscope. The cell cultures. Autoradiography and electrophoresis. Main histomorphological and histochemical staining. Principles of immunolocalization of molecules and cellular organelles. Fractional centrifugation.
THE STEM CELLS
Notes on cellular differentiation. Stem cells (general characteristics of embryonic stem cells, adult tissues, and induced pluripotent stem cells). Stem niches. Cloning. Tissue regeneration.
THE EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Generalities (organization, vascularization and innervation) and embryonic derivation. Characteristics of epithelial cells [shape, polarity, specializations of the apical surface (common cilia and primary cilia (notes on ciliopathies), microvilli, stereocilia], specializations of the lateral surface [adhesive molecules and junction complexes (ultrastructural and molecular organization of the occluding junction, adherent, desmosome), the gap junctions], specializations of the basal surface (structural and molecular organization, function of the basal lamina), the cytoskeleton, epithelial stem cells (general characteristics of stem cells of adult tissues).
Classification of epithelial tissues (lining and glandular; notes on sensory and special epithelia).
Surface epithelia. General characteristics, classification, distribution and hints of functions. Mucous membranes (intestinal epithelium, airway epithelium, bladder epithelium), serosa, skin and endothelium [notes on the structure of capillaries (continuous, fenestrated and sinusoid capillaries, passage of molecules and cells through the endothelium) and of blood vessels].
Epidermis (keratinocytes and cornification, melanocytes and melanogenesis, Langherans cells and Merkel cells).
Clinical links: celiac disease, primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) or immotile cilia syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), pemphigus, Harlequin-type ichthyosis, melanoma.
Glandular epithelia. Embryonic derivation and histological organisation of the exocrine and endocrine glands (parenchyma and stroma). Exocrine glands (position, organisation, types of adenomeres and excretory ducts), classification and secretions (serous, mucous, mixed). Myoepithelial cells. Examples of exocrine glands: skin glands (sebaceous, sweat and mammary glands), major salivary glands, pancreas, digestive glands, goblet cells. Endocrine glands. General characteristics (concept of cellular signalling, autocrine, paracrine, endocrine, exosomes) and histological organisation (cordonal, follicular and interstitial). Hormones (polypeptides, amino acids and steroids). Examples of histological organisation and functions of endocrine glands: pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas.
THE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
General characteristics, embryonic origin, classification, distribution and functions.
The connective tissues proper (classification, distribution and functions): loose (areolar) and dense (regular and irregular). Mesenchymal stem cells. Resident cells (fibroblasts, reticular cells, macrophages [phagocytosis (opsonins, Toll-type receptors, complement, such as APC cells, the macrophage system), mast cells, adipocytes]. Integrins and interactions with molecules of the intercellular substance. Intercellular substance (amorphous matrix and protein fibers). Amorphous matrix (GAGs, proteoglycans and glycoproteins) and interstitial fluid. Protein fibers. Collagens (fibrillar, laminar/reticular and FACIT and their molecular organization in particular of collagen I, synthesis and fibrillogenesis). Elastin and elastic fibers (molecular characteristics of elastin, fibrillins and their synthesis). Notes on some pathologies due to proteoglycans, collagenopathies and elastinopathies. Connective tissues proper with special properties [adipose (white and brown), reticular, elastic, pigmented, mucous].
The supporting connective tissues.
Cartilage tissues. Hyaline cartilage (embryonic origin, histological organization, distribution and growth: staining,, perichondrium, chondroblasts / chondrocytes, intercellular substance and aggrecans, collagen fibers). Special types of hyaline cartilage (metaphyseal / seriata / conjugation and articular cartilage). Elastic cartilage (embryonic origin, histological organization, distribution and growth: staining, perichondrium, chondroblasts / chondrocytes, intercellular substance). Fibrous cartilage (embryonic origin, histological organization, distribution and growth: staining, perichondrium, chondroblasts / chondrocytes, intercellular substance).
Bone tissues.
1. General characteristics of their histological composition and organization (types of bones, vascularity, innervation). Cells (osteoprogenitories, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts). Intercellular substance (mineralized matrix, collagen fibers, glycoproteins). Bone tissue lamellar (compact or spongy) and not lamellar. Preparation of a histological preparation of bone tissue (demineralization or section due to wear). Periosteum and endosteum. Osteoblasts (synthesis of molecules of the intercellular substance, their role in the formation of osteoclasts-RANK / RANKL, in maintaining the "niche" of hematopoietic stem cells and in mineralization). Osteocytes. Osteoclasts: origin, cytological (podosome) and functional (hydrogen ion pump, lysosome) characteristics. Role of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in calcium metabolism (parathyroid hormone, calcitonin). Notes on osteoporosis (estrogens, RANKL and OPG).
2. Ossification. Direct ossification. Indirect ossification. Example of ossification of the bones of the face and skull (chondrocranium and neurocranium). Example of indirect ossification of a long bone of the axial skeleton (primary ossification center and secondary ossification centers). Growth in length (metaphyseal cartilage) and width and ossification of a bone. Formation of an osteone. Mechanisms of mineralization (role of osteoblasts, mineralization vesicles, collagen fibers and proteoglycans).
Clinical correlations: Osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, dwarfism, osteogenesis imperfecta, osteopetrosis, Osteoporosis
Blood and lymph
Blood (composition and functions). Plasma (serum) and corpuscular elements (hematocrit, buffy coat, blood smear). Red blood cells [structural (size, shape and cytoskeleton) and functional characteristics (numbers, hemoglobin, transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide, hemolysis processes, notes on blood groups]. Notes on haemolytic pathologies (cytoskeletal anomalies, favism and sickle cell anemia). Platelets [structural characteristics (size, chromomer, hyalomer, shape and cytoskeleton, granules) and functional characteristics (numbers, plug and thrombus)]. Activation of platelets (adhesion to collagen, exocytosis granules, exposure of phospholipids and thrombin and fibrinogen receptors, aggregation). Notes on the intrinsic and extrinsic blood coagulation. White blood cells (types and numbers, the leukocyte formula, diapedesis). Neutrophils (how to recognize them in a blood smear, MO and TEM characteristics; "kamikaze" and "effect functions" spiderman ", the" respiratory burst "). Eosinophils (how to recognize them in a blood smear, characteristics at MO and TEM; functions, the basic protein ica major). Basophils (how to recognize them in a blood smear, MO and TEM characteristics; functions). Monocytes (how to recognize them in a blood smear, characteristics at OM and TEM). Lymphocytes (how to recognize them in a blood smear, characteristics at OM and TEM; functions).
Lymph (composition and function).
Lympho-hematopoietic tissues. Lymphoid tissues (notes on the structure and functions of the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen and bone marrow).
Hemopoiesis [the hematopoietic stem cell, hematopoietic cytokines, progenitors and precursors of differentiative cell lines, erythropoiesis, granulocytopoiesis, monocytopoiesis, thrombopoiesis (mechanisms of platelet release), lymphopoiesis].
The immune system. Innate and acquired immunity. Notes on the functions of B, T and NK lymphocytes (concept of antigen, antibodies, complement, clonal selection, gene rearrangement, immune memory, APC cells, the HLA system, the different classes of T lymphocytes).
Tooth tissues
Mineralized tissues: enamel, dentin, cement. Soft tissues: paradontium and pulp.
MUSCLE TISSUES
General characteristics, embryonic origin, classification, distribution.
Skeletal muscle tissue. General organization of a muscle. Muscle fibers cytological (shape and size, colorability, bands and striae) and ultrastructural characteristics. Myofibrils and contractile myofilaments, the sarcomere. The actin filaments (molecular organization); myosin filaments (molecular organization); filaments and accessory proteins of the sarcomere (titin, nebulin, oscurin, protein C, myomesin); the dystrophin and the costamer. The triads and the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Neuromuscular synapse, motor plate, functioning of a cholinergic synapse. The molecular mechanism of muscle contraction (action potential, T tubules, DHPR and ryanodine receptors, calcium ions and troponins / tropomyosin, the myosin heads interaction cycle, ATP, binding sites on actin filaments). Satellite cells. Structural, metabolic and functional heterogeneity of muscle fibers (type I, type IIa, IIb and IIx fibers). Outline of muscle fiber growth factors IGF-1 and myostatin, testosterone and anabolic steroids.
Smooth muscle tissue. General organization of the tissue (laminae, small muscles, myoepithelial cells). Cytological (shape and size) and ultrastructural characteristics of the smooth muscle cell (caveole, gap junctions, dense bodies, contractile filaments). Organization of contractile filaments (caldesmone, calponina, dense bodies, intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton). Characteristics and stimuli (nervous, hormonal, mechanical, NO) of the contraction. Unitary and multi-unit musculature. Synapses "en passant". Molecular mechanism of contraction (calmodulin, MLCK, myosin light chain phosphorylation, caldesmone / calponin).
Heart muscle tissue. General tissue organization, cardiomyocyte network and intercalary discs. Cytological (shape and size) and ultrastructural characteristics of the cardiomyocyte (intercalary discs, contractile filaments, sarcomere, dyads, mitochondria). Characteristics of cardiomyocyte contraction (sodium channels and spontaneous onset of action potential, DHPR and ryanodine channels, calcium ion and sarcomere). Special cardiomyocytes of the sinoatrial node and Purkinje cells.
NERVOUS TISSUE
General characteristics, embryonic origin, classification, distribution. CNS and SNP. The autonomic nervous system.
General organization of the tissue (neuronal networks, synapses, glia, gray matter and white matter). Connective lining (the meninges) and vascularization (the blood-brain barrier). Special histological methods for the study of nervous tissue from "black" Golgi to "Clarity" staining.
Cytological (shape and size, plates of Nissl, cytoskeleton, Golgi) and ultrastructural characteristics (neurotubules and neurofilaments, actin filaments, REG) of the neuron. Morphological and functional classification of neurons. Dendrites. The axon and its coatings (the myelin sheath and the concept of nerve fiber). Structure, ultrastructure and molecular organization of the myelin sheath. The axoplasmic flow. Regenerative capacity of the axon. General principles of the functioning of a neuron (the resting potential, the action potential and the propagation of the nerve impulse). The electrical and chemical synapses. Interneuronal chemical synapses (synaptogenesis, types and structure, pre- and postsynaptic density, neurotransmitters, neuropeptides). Histological structure of the nerves and ganglia.
The glia (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependyma, microglia, Schwann cells, satellite cells). Notes on neuronal stem cells.
EMBRYOLOGY
SPERMATOGENESIS, OOGENESIS AND FERTILISATION
The meiotic division. Timing and modalities of meiosis in spermatogenesis and ovogenesis. Aneuploidy. Testis structure: albuginea tunic, lobules, seminiferous tubules, rectus tubules and rete testis. Localization and function of Sertoli cells, Leydig cells and myodic cells. Male genital tract and related glands. The seminiferous epithelium. Spermatogenesis: the mitotic phase, the meiotic phase and spermiogenesis. Structure of spermatozoa. Cycle and wave of the seminiferous epithelium. The Immune Privilege of the Testis. Hormonal control of spermatogenesis. Testicular tumors.
Structure of the ovary: cortical area and medullary area. Folliculogenesis: the primordial, primary, secondary, antral, dominant, ovulatory follicle. The zona pellucida. The cells of the theca. Ovulation. The corpus luteum. Ovarian cycle and uterine cycle. Hormonal control of the ovarian cycle and follicular selection. Mutual influence between somatic cells and the oocyte: growth and maturation of the oocyte and proliferation and maturation of follicular cells. The sperm. Capacitation and acrosomal reaction of spermatozoa. Fertilisation. Activation of the oocyte: calcium, cortical reaction, completion of meiosis (MPF and cytostatic factor). Parthenogenesis and imprinting. Birth control methods. Assisted reproduction techniques. Generalities of prenatal development: embryonic and fetal period and sensitivity to teratogenic agents. Diagnosis and prenatal therapy.
FIRST WEEK OF DEVELOPMENT
The segmentation. Cloning. Embryonic stem cells (ES), adult stem cells and induced pluripotent cells (iPSCs). Preimplantation genetic diagnosis. IVF and ICSI. Activation of the embryo genome. Inactivation of the X chromosome. Imprinting and hydatiform mole.
SECOND WEEK OF DEVELOPMENT
Embryonic implantation. Differentiation of the trophoblast: cytotrophoblast, syncytium trophoblast and lacunar system. HCG and pregnancy test. Amniotic cavity and yolk sac. Formation of the extraembryonic mesoderm. Chorionic or extra-embryonic coelomic cavity. Decidual reaction. Ectopic implant.
THIRD WEEK OF DEVELOPMENT
Gastrulation and formation of the three embryonic sheets. Primary epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Buccopharyngeal and cloacal membrane. Allantoid diverticulum. Development of the notochord, induction of the neural plaque (BMP inhibitors: cord, noggin and follistatin) and neurulation. Neural tube and neural crest. The paraxial, intermediate and lateral mesoderm. The intra-embryonic coelom. Formation of extra- and intra-embryonic angioblastic islands. Cardiogenic area and transverse septum. Regression of the primitive line and the sacro-coccygeal teratoma. Determination of the body axes: AVE, Hensen's node, notochord, primitive line and postero-anterior, dorso-ventral and left-right decreasing gradient of factors of the TGFbeta family (nodal and BMP). Differentiation of neural crests and importance of BMP, WNT and FGF.
FOURTH WEEK OF DEVELOPMENT
Lateral and cephalo-caudal folding and cylindrical definition of the body. Development of the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Homeotic genes and the body pattern along the anterior-posterior axis. Molecular mechanisms of somitogenesis (clock and wavefront model).
ORGANOGENESIS
The neuroectoderm: development of the neural tube. Eminence or caudal gem. Three to five brain vesicles. Derivatives of the walls and cavities of the five vesicles. Development of the pituitary gland. The spinal cord and the formation of the equine tail. Derivatives of the neuroepithelium: neurons and glia of the central nervous system. Radial glial cells. Differentiation of microglia cells. The peripheral nervous system and other derivatives of neural crest cells. Importance of BMP and SHH in the differential development of neurons in the spinal cord. NGF and neurotrophic factors. Malformations: rachisisis, spina bifida occulta, meningocele, meningomyelocele.
Development of the face and neck. Development and derivatives of the frontal process, arches, clefs and pharyngeal pouches. Stomodeum and buccopharyngeal membrane. Embryonic derivation of the cartilages, bones, muscles and nerves of the face. Development of the primitive and definitive palate, tongue and thyroid. Tooth development: four stages. Malformations: cervical sinus, cleft lip, cleft palate, cleft lip and palate.
Malformations: cervical sinus, cleft lip, cleft palate, cleft lip and palate
PRACTICAL HISTOLOGY
Through the use of the optic microscope students will have to identify histological specimens, describe their organisation, and correlate structure with function, at cellular and tissue level. Histological specimens to be studied are:
- Simple boundary epithelium: squamous (mesothelium, endothelium), cuboidal (glandular ducts) and columnar (intestine) epithelia.
- Stratified boundary epithelium: squamous (esophagus) and keratinized squamous (epidermis) epithelia
- Pseudostratified epithelium (trachea)
- Transitional epithelium (ureter)
- Glandular epithelium: intraepithelial, unicellular glands (the goblet cell); examples of exocrine (salivary glands) and endocrine (thyroid, parathyroids) glands; exo/endocrine gland: the pancreas.
- Connective tissue: loose connective tissue (trachea, intestine and esophagus); dense irregular connective tissue (the skin); dense regular connective tissue (tendons).
- Supportive connective tissues: tracheal cartilage and compact bone (ground and H&E)
- Blood smear
- Lympho-epithelial tissue of the thymus
- Skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissues
- Nerve tissue: section of the spinal cord
( reference books)
RECOMMENDED TEXTS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Pawlina W.: Histology a text and atlas, eighth edition. Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
- Schoenwolf, Bleyl, Bauer and Francis-West: Larsen's Human Embryology, 5th edition.
- Moore, Persaud, Torchia. The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology. Elsevier.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
- Fehrenbach & Popowics, Illustrated Dental Embryology, Histology, and Anatomy, Edition 5
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BIO/17
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80
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Basic compulsory activities
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