Cellular Physiology of the Nervous System.
Homeostatic mechanisms and control systems. Exchanges across the cell membrane. Active and passive membrane processes. Osmosis. Cell membrane potential and equilibrium potential. Electrical properties of the cell membrane. Propagation of the electrical signal along an excitable fiber. The voltage-gated ion channels of Na +, K + and Ca2 +. The potential for action. Refractoriness of excitable membranes. Propagation of electrical signals and action potential. The electrical and chemical synapses. Synaptic potentials. The neuromuscular synapse. Organization of the nervous system. Sensory receptors. Somatic sensitivities: tactile and proprioceptive sensitivity. Pain. Motor functions of the spinal cord: the spinal reflexes. Control of motor function by the cerebral cortex and brain stem. Nuclei of the base and motor control. Cerebellum and motor control. Cerebral cortex and intellectual functions: language, memory and learning. Sleep-wake rhythm. Functions of the limbic system and hypothalamus. Autonomous nervous system I.
Physiology of the cardiovascular system.
l heart muscle. Excitation-contraction coupling of the heart muscle. Mechanical and electrical activity of the heart. Phases of the cardiac cycle: pressure, volumetric and electrical aspects. Outline of electrocardiography. Cardiac output. Principles of hemodynamics. Relationship between resistance to blood flow, pressure, volume and viscosity. The capillaries and microcirculation. The venous return. Control of blood circulation. Lymphatic circulation.
Respiratory System Physiology.
Organization of the respiratory system. Pulmonary ventilation. Pulmonary circulation. Alveolus-capillary gas exchanges. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and body fluids. Lung ventilation and perfusion. Breathing regulation. Acid-base physiology. Adaptations of the respiratory system to physical exercise.


Physiology Digestive system: digestive system anatomy. Pancreatic secretion. Hepatic secretion. Liver function. Entero-hepatic circulation. Intestinal secretion. Absorption. Lipid digestion, carbohydrate digestion. Excretion.
Urinary system physiology: Kidney functions: maintaining the homeostasis of body fluids through the regulation of pH, osmolarity, volume and pressure of the circulating blood. Endocrine-like functions (erythropoietin, vitamin D, angiotensin II).
Functional anatomy of the kidney: cortical, medulla, their relationships and intrarenal blood circulation. The nephron as a functional unit, types of nephrons, cell types of the tubular epithelium, the dense macula and the juxta-glomerular apparatus, capillaries, arterioles and their functional relationships with the glomeruli and tubular structures.
The fundamental processes of renal function: Glomerular ultrafiltration: glomerulus and Bowmann's capsule. Starling forces and Glomerular Filtration Rate (VFG). Renal self-regulation of GFR and Renal Blood (or plasma) Flow (FER or FPR). Urine concentration. Homeostatic adjustments. Regulation of osmolarity, blood volume and pressure: volume and pressure receptors along the circulatory shaft and nerve transmission pathways. Osmolarity receptors. Compensation of the hyper and hypo-osmolarity of the blood, of the hyper and hypo-volemia

Fundamentals of human physiology-. Lauralee Sherwood. - Piccin
Berne & Levy Fisiologia”. Koeppen and Stanton. Editore: Casa Editrice Ambrosiana.
Fisiologia Medica”. Guyton and Hall. Editore: Edra.

Elements of chemistry: Atoms and molecules, Chemical reactions, Ionic balance in solution, Water.
Elements of organic chemistry: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic acids, proteins, Food digestion. Amino acids: general structure and classification. Proteins: structure and function. Structural levels. Protein folding. Fibrous proteins: structure of alpha-keratin, collagen and silk fibroin. Globular proteins: structure and function of myoglobin and hemoglobin; the heme group; saturation curve; regulation of the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. Enzymes: general characteristics; activation energy and reaction rate; general concepts on enzymatic kinetics. Regulatory mechanisms: competitive and non-competitive inhibitors; allosteric enzymes and enzymes regulated by covalent modifications. Catalytic strategies. Catalysis of serine-proteases. The blood coagulation cascade as an example to clarify determinants of specificity, the role of cofactors and the formation of macromolecular complexes.
INTRODUCTION TO METABOLISM: general organization. Catabolism and anabolism. Bioenergetics. Energetically relevant molecules. Use of energy within the cell. Examples of regulation of metabolic processes.
Glucose as a fuel for energy production. Hormonal control of glucose metabolism. Glycolysis - phases and regulation. The pentose phosphate pathway and its biochemical importance. Degradation of glycogen - glycogen phosphorylase and its hormonal control. Gluconeogenesis and other biosynthetic pathways of carbohydrates.
Lactic fermentation and alcoholic fermentation. Anaerobic metabolism. Pyruvate oxidation mechanism - the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
The citric acid cycle - Functions, energy balance and cycle regulation. Oxidative Phosphorylation - The mitochondrion as the cell's powerhouse. The machinery for transporting electrons: structure and function of complexes I, II, III and IV. The electrochemical potential in the transport of electrons. Use of oxygen. ATP synthase: structure and mechanism of action. Stoichiometry of electron transport, proton transport, oxygen consumption and ATP production.
Brief introduction to mitochondrial dysfunction: mitochondria as generators of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS, oxidative stress, antioxidants and nutrition.
Activation of lipolysis and transport of free fatty acids. Activation and transport of free fatty acids in mitochondria. The catabolism of lipids - β-oxidation. Ketogenesis.
Synthesis of fatty acids - Regulation of the metabolism of fatty acids.
Cholesterol metabolism.
Transamination and transdeamination of amino acids. The urea cycle.
Bioenergetics and regulation of energy metabolism - energy metabolism disorders.

“Chimica e Biochimica”. Massimo Stefani, Niccolò Taddei; Zanichelli editore

Elements of chemistry: Atoms and molecules, Chemical reactions, Ionic balance in solution, Water.
Elements of organic chemistry: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic acids, proteins, Food digestion. Amino acids: general structure and classification. Proteins: structure and function. Structural levels. Protein folding. Fibrous proteins: structure of alpha-keratin, collagen and silk fibroin. Globular proteins: structure and function of myoglobin and hemoglobin; the heme group; saturation curve; regulation of the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. Enzymes: general characteristics; activation energy and reaction rate; general concepts on enzymatic kinetics. Regulatory mechanisms: competitive and non-competitive inhibitors; allosteric enzymes and enzymes regulated by covalent modifications. Catalytic strategies. Catalysis of serine-proteases. The blood coagulation cascade as an example to clarify determinants of specificity, the role of cofactors and the formation of macromolecular complexes.
INTRODUCTION TO METABOLISM: general organization. Catabolism and anabolism. Bioenergetics. Energetically relevant molecules. Use of energy within the cell. Examples of regulation of metabolic processes.
Glucose as a fuel for energy production. Hormonal control of glucose metabolism. Glycolysis - phases and regulation. The pentose phosphate pathway and its biochemical importance. Degradation of glycogen - glycogen phosphorylase and its hormonal control. Gluconeogenesis and other biosynthetic pathways of carbohydrates.
Lactic fermentation and alcoholic fermentation. Anaerobic metabolism. Pyruvate oxidation mechanism - the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
The citric acid cycle - Functions, energy balance and cycle regulation. Oxidative Phosphorylation - The mitochondrion as the cell's powerhouse. The machinery for transporting electrons: structure and function of complexes I, II, III and IV. The electrochemical potential in the transport of electrons. Use of oxygen. ATP synthase: structure and mechanism of action. Stoichiometry of electron transport, proton transport, oxygen consumption and ATP production.
Brief introduction to mitochondrial dysfunction: mitochondria as generators of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS, oxidative stress, antioxidants and nutrition.
Activation of lipolysis and transport of free fatty acids. Activation and transport of free fatty acids in mitochondria. The catabolism of lipids - β-oxidation. Ketogenesis.
Synthesis of fatty acids - Regulation of the metabolism of fatty acids.
Cholesterol metabolism.
Transamination and transdeamination of amino acids. The urea cycle.
Bioenergetics and regulation of energy metabolism - energy metabolism disorders.

“Chimica e Biochimica”. Massimo Stefani, Niccolò Taddei; Zanichelli editore

Solutions
Concentration, molarity, molality, molar ratio, dilution, stoichiometry.
Immunochemistry.
General aspects of the immune system, production of antibodies, immunochemical assays, Elisa, immunohistochemistry.
Electrophoretic techniques
General principles, supports used in electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), SDS-PAGE, Western blot.
Molecular biology techniques
General aspects of the genetic, mutations and clinical significance, PCR, sequencing, principle of genomic and NGS sequencing.

”Biochimica Applicata”, Monica Stoppini, Vittorio Bellotti; Editore. EdiSES.
”Biochemistry”, Terry A. Brown; Scion Publishing.

Basic principles of microbiology Morphology and structure of the bacterial cell Bacterial spore structure and sporulation process Gram stain and stain for acid resistance Metabolism, growth and bacterial replication Sterilization, disinfection, asepsis Structure, replication and pathogenic mechanisms of fungi Morphology of viral particles Cell tropism and host spectrum Viral enzymes Virus classification Stages of viral replication Basic concepts of the immune response The host's natural immune response Acquired humoral immune response Cell-mediated acquired immune response Immune responses against infectious agents Mechanisms of action of Interferon Vaccines and passive immunoprophylaxis Bacterial pathogenesis mechanisms Demonstration of the causal nature between pathogen and disease: Koch's postulates Normal microbial flora of our organism Host-microorganism interactions: Commensalism-Mutualism - Parasitism Factors that influence the "host-microorganism" balance Method of transmission of the infection Stages of the infectious process Bacterial virulence factors Mechanisms of viral pathogenesis and interaction with the host: Transmission mode Stages of the infectious process Localized and disseminated infection Persistence and latency status Viral oncogenesis Cytopathic effect induced by viruses Alteration of expression of genes and / or cellular proteins.

“Le basi della Microbiologia”. Richard Harvey, Pamela C. Champe, Richard D. Fisher; Zanichelli editore.

Organization of a laboratory Knowledge of the main laboratory instruments Types of test tubes (with and without anticoagulant) used in analytical investigations CBC and basic concepts of blood tests The various stages of an analytical process

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